It has been suggested that many of the plaques in this collection probably once formed portions of coffers or caskets; some reaching as far back as the ninth century. The French and English caskets of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were frequently ornamented, like the mirror cases, the combs, and the writing-tablets, with domestic scenes. In these people are seen playing at chess, draughts or similar games. In others they are riding, hawking, hunting, dancing and playing on musical instruments. As such they are as valuable as illuminations in manuscripts for showing the dress, armour and customs of the day. However domestic subjects are more commonly found on combs and mirror cases than on caskets. One of the most frequently occurring religious scenes is the message from David to Bathsheba, presumably because Bathsheba is represented in her bath.

While the tusk of the elephant is correctly considered to present the purest characteristics of ivory the tusks of other animals, such as the walrus, the hippopotamus, and the narwhal are included in the list of animals who provided the raw material for ivory carving. The history of ivory carving can be dated back long before the earliest Egyptian dynasties to a time when prehistoric humans roamed the earth with the mammoth. Surviving ivory carvings have been dated back to Egyptian and Assyrian ivory and the Greeks from 600 BC fashioned statues of their gods in ivory. In the first centuries after the death of Christ the numbers of workers in ivory appeared to expand but even so surviving examples from Roman imperial times before Constantine are extremely scarce.

From around 750 AD theological quarrels arose about the lawfulness of using images of people or animals in churches as well as for private devotion. The word iconoclasm or 'icon-breaking' is thought to have originated at this time and as a result works of art were brought by fugitives from Constantinople to France, Germany, and other countries. This furnished models from which copies could be multiplied and serve as an aid to the workmen and artists who were driven into exile, came west to found new schools of art.

As Christianity spread gradually over Western Europe from the age of Charlemagne, ivory was used more and more for the decoration of ecclesiastical furniture, especially of books and reliquaries. Included amongst these new uses were; Pyxes for Eucharist wafers; retables (shelves or ledges) or ornamented screens for altars; Buckets for holy water; handles for flabella fans; Episcopal combs; crosiers and pastoral staffs. Often referred to as the Carolingian school, there are several examples of from this period in this collection.

The casts in this collection were taken from originals made of ivory, bone and marble made in Europe over many centuries. The originals were sought out by J O Westwood over 1875 and 1876 with a view to making casts to provide museums and universities with examples of rare European artworks. The first of Westwood's casts went on sale around 1855 and they remain a significant educational resource as they provide access to the otherwise inaccessible artistic and antiquarian information.

Geoff Barker, Assistant Curator, September 2010

References
Maskell, W., Ivories Ancient and Medieval, printed by Chapman and Hall, Piccadilly, London, 1875
Westwood, J. O., A Descriptive Catalogue of the Fictile Ivories in the South Kensington Museum, printed by George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, printers to the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, Piccadilly, London, 1876

Many of the casts were taken from the original artworks by J. O. Westwood and A. Nesbitt. At first they used gutta-percha alone, but it was found that after being softened in hot water it hardened again too rapidly to allow a large ivory to be properly pressed. Hence they mixed wax with the gutta-percha, which caused it to retain its softness for a longer period. The prepared gutta-percha was then to be placed in hot water (which was not allowed to boil), and when it became as soft as putty it was moulded by hand into a flattened plate rather larger than the artwork to be moulded. The face of the artwork was wetted with clear cold water, or washed over with soft soap and while wet the gutta-percha was placed upon it and pressed by the thumb carefully so as to force the gutta-percha into all the deeper cut parts of the artwork.

It was then allowed to harden and cool, after which it was lifted with great care from the artwork. Once removed the mould was ready to receive the fluid plaster of Paris of the finest quality. Westwood notes that when a number of copies were required an electrotype made of the mould was preferred to ensure every cast was as fresh as the first. In this manner a considerable number, both of moulds and electrotype moulds, were accumulated by Alexander Nesbitt, A. W. Franks, and J. O. Westwood. These were later transferred to the Arundel Society, who sold copies of the casts from 1855.

The beauty of the casts made from these moulds was universally acknowledged at the time as they were made with the finest plaster of Paris by Messrs. Franchi, whose business was transferred to Messrs. Elkington, who continued to sell nearly all of the specimens taken by Nesbitt and Westwood. When properly made, and carefully coloured by hand from the originals, (the surface allowing the application of common water colours), it was next to impossible to distinguish one of these casts from the original.

Walrus ivory ceased to be used in Europe long before the nineteenth century and most examples date back to medieval and Carlovingian periods. In addition the scarcity of Elephants in the medieval period limited its use, although it is important to note that frozen fossil tusks from mammoths had been used, particularly in Russia. Among ivories there is a wide difference in the condition and colour. This is not caused by the origin of the material, or even necessarily the age, as some newer pieces are among the most discoloured and brittle in appearance. It seems the innumerable possible accidents to which carved ivories are exposed from age to age accounts for this great difference.

References
Westwood, J. O., A Descriptive Catalogue of the Fictile Ivories in the South Kensington Museum, printed by George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, printers to the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, Piccadilly, London, 1876

Between 1884 and 1887 the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences acquired over 650 plaster cast reproductions of European Medieval carved artworks into its collection. These were purchased from: F. Kusthardt in 1884; J. Kreittmayr in 1885; and Messrs Elkington & Co between 1885 and 1887.

Replica casket panels (8), Carlovingian or Late Anglo-Saxon 900-1000 CE, fictile ivory plaster cast, made by Elkington and Co, London, England, 1855-1887

Plaster casts of an ivory original from the Louvre, Paris. Another set of casts from the same process is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum (repro.1858-191).

These eight panels form the sides and top of a casket.

1. Front of casket. Herod receiving the wise men. In the centre, beneath a rounded arch or rather dome, resting on side columns with capitals, is seated Herod crowned, holding a rod with a ball at the top. His right hand is extended towards the Magi, who approach from the left in cloaks fastened on the right shoulder with fibulae and Phrygian caps, one emerging from a building with a square door and round-headed windows in the upper story. On either side of HerodÂ?s throne is a triangular headed doorways, that to the right having a curtain looped up on the side column in the antique manner. To the right stand two of HerodÂ?s guards, armed with long spears and large circular shield resting on the ground, and at the end is a building corresponding with that at the other end. It is surrounded by a broad and handsome foliated border.

2. Back of casket. The Nativity and Presentation in the Temple. To the left beneath a long flat roof, supported on slender columns, the Virgin is lying with the head propped up on a couch, a curtain hanging from the roof looped up on the adjoining column in the usual manner, the Infant is lying in a large square box to the left, with the ox and ass. Joseph is seated in the right upper angle under the roof, resting his head on his hand; to the right, also beneath a long flat roof, supported by slender columns, the Virgin with outstretched arms supports the Infant, which Simeon prepares to take, also with outstretched arms, covered with a napkin, over a square altar covered with a cloth. A female attendant bearing the doves enters the square-headed door of the temple behind the Virgin. These females wear a close cap covered by what appears to be part of the great cloak in which they are wrapped; they are all represented with singularly long necks. It is surrounded by a broad handsome foliated border.

3. The Offering of the Magi. The Virgin seated at the entrance of an open building or shed with a flat roof, supported by slender columns at the angles. She holds the Child entirely wrapped in swaddling clothes on her knee; behind her is seated Joseph, holding a book with his left hand, and extending his open right hand, and behind him stands a female attendant. The three Magi approach from the left, the first and second with bent bodies, the third kneeling, each wearing a Phrygian cap, and each holding a large saucer-like bowl filled, apparently, with coins. Each also wears a cloak, fastening at the right shoulder with a brooch.

4. The Flight into Egypt, which is treated in a very unusual manner. To the right is the walled city of Jerusalem with watch towers, a round building with a cupola and the temple within the walls, towards which approach Joseph on foot, carrying a knobbed staff, pointing towards the city, with his head turned back towards the Virgin, who follows him on foot, carrying the Infant (with a plain circular nimbus). She is followed by another female with a long staff and a man by the side of a conventional tree. The treatment of these figures, especially the attenuated form of the long-necked females, is very similar to that seen in Anglo-Saxon miniatures of the tenth and eleventh centuries.

5. The angel: with a round plain nimbus, holding a long rod with a trefoil at the top, appearing to the three wise men lying together on the ground asleep, wearing Phrygian caps.

6. Sloping end of top of casket: The angel appearing to Joseph in a dream to warn him to flee to Egypt. Joseph is lying asleep at the door of a building with a square top and a triangular pediment, resting upon columns, round which the large curtain is looped in the antique manner.

7. End of casket: The Annunciation. The Virgin is seated at the entrance of a Byzantine dome-roofed building holding a flower (?) in her left hand, her right hand extended towards the archangel, who approaches with outspread wings; holding a long sceptre, and with his right hand extended towards the Virgin, behind whom a female attendant is standing. Surrounded by a broad foliated border.

8. The other end of casket: The meeting of Mary and Elizabeth, who are embracing each other in front of a double-roofed building, with two rounded entrances, one with a curtain looped up on the side column, the other occupied by a female figure holding a flower? Surrounded by a broad foliated border. Three sides of this casket are figured by Labarre, Hist. d' Arts Industr., Album, sculpt. pl. 10, and considered by him to be Byzantine of the ninth century.

Reference: Westwood, J. O., 'Fictile Ivory Casts in the South Kensington Museum', Chapman and Hall, London, 1876 (58/191)

Made: Elkington & Co; ; 1855 - 1887

16488

1855 - 1887