These West African manillas served as currency and as a form of barter and were used mainly in south-eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon coast. They form part of a larger collection of twenty six manillas collected by the donor while he was Australian Trade Commissioner in West Africa during the 1960's. Imported manillas were widely accepted along the Nigerian Coast. They were used together with native currencies such as cowries, puncheons of oil, and iron bars. Their value was fixed in terms of the local currency unit. Manillas could buy slaves, tusks and pepper.

They were probably manufactured in Birmingham and used for trading purposes within Africa in exchange for beads, linen cloth, and metal bars or could be left as security for goods supplied on credit and are non ornamental. The Africans in every region had names for each variety of manilla and inconsistencies may have existed with regard to both name and value although currency zones where manillas were tendered were widespread across ethnic, political, and geographical boundaries. Although essentially a trade commodity, the Birmingham type manillas have been recorded as being used as bride price. According to Johansson (p. 23), four hundred manillas were considered an adequate bride price.

Karen Adams, December 2007

References
Grey, R.F.A. 'Manillas' in The Nigerian Field, Vol.16, p52-56.
Johansson, Sven-Olof. Nigerian Currencies: Manillas, Cowries and Others.
Norrkpoping, Sweden: printed by Alfa-Tryck for the author, 1967.
Quiggin, Alison Hingston. A Survey of Primitive Money: The Beginnings of
Currency. New York: AMS Press, 1979.

These trade manillas were pre cast copper alloy and mass produced in Birmingham during the 19th century. This process requires the preparation of two models which are used to create negative moulds in a soft material like terracotta, plaster, stone or wood. These moulds are fitted together leaving channels into which molten metal is poured. After cooling the manilla is removed from the mould. On only some of the manillas are seams evident. Others reveal no visible seam. Copper was the primary metal for exchange. Johansson (in Nigerian Currencies p. 21) states that the general composition of manillas was sixty five per cent copper and twenty five per cent lead. Traces of other metals like silver, gold, antimony, arsenic and iron have also been used.

Karen Adams, December 2007

References
Johansson, Sven-Olof. Nigerian Currencies: Manillas, Cowries and Others.
Norrkoping, Sweden: printed by Alfa-Tryck for the author, 1967.
Quiggin, Alison Hingston. A Survey of Primitive Money: the Beginnings of Currency.
New York: AMS Press, 1979.
Rees, Alun. 'Manillas' in Coin News, April 2000, Hindhead, Surrey, England: Token
Publications.

These small currency manillas were purchased from a road-side trader in 1963 by the donor in one of the small villages near Aba during a tour of the then Eastern Region. They were the first manillas purchased by the donor.

The origin of manillas is unclear. They are generally accepted to be open ended bracelets from copper alloy and were widely used from the late 15 to the early 20th centuries. Speculation surrounds their derivation with theories drawing on their similarities to bronze Celtic torques, to indigenously crafted objects or to origins in the penannular ring money of the Phoenician, Carthaginian or Egyptian explorers. These trade manillas were made in England and like other European manillas, from, for example, Portugal or Germany, they were intended for use within Africa. Over the years variations occurred in weight, shape and size as well as in their metal composition. Of these six one is possibly an early British manilla, one a middle period, and four late British manillas with tear drop shaped feet. The latter are smaller than the earlier types. Two of the manillas are possibly Okpoho. The earliest examples show casting seams. This becomes less apparent the later the manilla is made. They vary slightly in size, thickness and size of flare. Pre-existing indigenous manillas were much larger than the trade manillas and decorated with surface patterns such as cross hatching, geometric shapes and punched circles. Towards the end of the 19th century the importation of manillas ceased and they were eventually withdrawn from circulation to be replaced with British-style currency. Only small numbers were kept for ceremonial customs such as marriages and burials. The buy-back price for the okpoho (trade) manilla was, according to Alun Rees, three pennies. The word manilla is derived either from the Spanish for necklace (monilia) or from the Latin for hand (manus). (Johansson, Nigerian Currencies: Manillas, Cowries and Others, p.11).

Karen Adams, December 2007

References
Eyo, Ekpo. Nigeria and the Evolution of Money. Lagos, Nigeria: Central bank of
Nigeria in association with the federal Department of Antiquities, 1979.
Fisher, Angela. Africa Adorned. New York: Abrams, 1984.
Johansson, Sven-Olof. Nigerian Currencies: manillas, cowries and others, 1967
Quiggin, Alison Hingston. A Survey of Primitive Money: The Beginnings of Currency.
New York: AMS Press, 1979.
Rees, Alun. "Manillas" in Coin News, April 2000 edn.

Trade manillas (6), European imported style, copper alloy, makers unknown, Birmingham, England, used in West Africa, c. 1890

Six trade manillas of undecorated horseshoe shape with flared ends.

Made: Birmingham, England; 1885 - 1895


Owned: Nigeria; 1963 - 2007

No marks

2008/75/6

1885 - 1895

60 mm

60 mm

23 mm

0.90 kg