This indigenous manilla is part of a collection comprising twenty-six in total. Manillas are open bracelets in various sizes used as a medium of exchange common in West Africa from the late 15th to the early 20th centuries. The word manilla is derived either from the Spanish for necklace (monilia) or from the Latin for hand (manus). This manilla was crafted by an unknown local artisan from copper probably melted down from imported manillas. Its function was both decorative and ritualistic, playing as it did a role in the ceremonial and customary practices associated with marriage such as bride price or dowry. Decorative details on manillas were believed to possess a symbolic and talismanic function and were prized as portable wealth, ornament, and as a means of status differentiation. Manillas were customary payments for goats, dogs, cloth, and palm-oil. Queen manillas were also used for burial gifts and to adorn shrines. This queen manilla bears a close resemblance to those used in the Niger delta area and in particular by the Degema people of Calabar Province or possibly from Uyo (eastern region) as seen in Johansson (cover image, 'Nigerian Currencies'). Johansson goes on to mention that one queen manilla could be exchanged for two slaves and that eight hundred small trade manillas was equivalent to one queen manilla. Decorative manillas were often horded or alternatively invested in livestock, land, or crops.

Karen Adams, December 2007

References
Grey, R.F.A. 'Manillas' in The Nigerian Field, Vol.16, p52-56.
Johansson, Sven-Olof. Nigerian Currencies: Manillas, Cowries and Others.
Norrkpoping, Sweden: printed by Alfa-Tryck for the author, 1967.
Quiggin, Alison Hingston. A Survey of Primitive Money: The Beginnings of
Currency. New York: AMS Press, 1979.

These indigenous manillas were made using the lost wax technique. This involves firstly making a model of the object in pure bees wax at which stage the basic form and design is determined, with decorative detail generally stamped or incised into the metal later. The wax model is then covered in clay mixed with organic substances such as hair or fibre. This is initially applied thinly and is combined with charcoal powder which vaporises when heated and in so doing prevents the formation of air bubbles. Each layer is dried before a new layer is applied. Wax rods extend from the model and melt when heated to facilitate the passage of molten metal which fills the void left by the wax. The clay mould is broken when cool and thus can only be used once.

Karen Adams, December 2007

References
Eyo, Ekpo. Nigeria and the Evolution of Money. Lagos, Nigeria: Central Bank of
Nigeria in association with the Federal Department of Antiquities, 1979.
Fisher, Angela. Africa Adorned. New York: Abrams, 1984.
Johansson, Sven-Olof. Nigerian Currencies: Manillas, Cowries and Others.
Norrkoping, Sweden: printed by Alfa-Tryck for the author, 1967.
Quiggin, Alison Hingston. A Survey of Primitive Money: The Beginnings of Currency.
New York: AMS Press, 1979.
Visona, Monica Blackman. A History of Art in Africa. London: Thames and Hudson,
2000.

This dowry manilla was purchased in 1966 from a trader outside the Ikoyi Rest House in Lagos, Nigeria.

The exact origin of manillas is uncertain. Speculation surrounds their possible derivation. Theories vary from their similarities to bronze Celtic torques which could have been recovered from shipwrecks off the Nigerian coast, to indigenously crafted objects, recast from found metal, or alternatively, having their origins in the penannular ring money used by the Egyptian, Carthaginian or Phoenician explorers. However archaeological evidence in the form of bronze artefacts from sites in Benin, Dawu or Bokabo, appears to support theories of African knowledge of extraction, craftsmanship and smithing of locally sourced metals prior to 15th century European trade contact. It seems reasonable to suggest that copper bracelets served early as a medium of exchange and were initially intended for ornamental and cultural purposes. Smaller, pre-cast, mass produced and undecorated trade manillas were made by various European countries for use within Africa. Both forms of manilla were withdrawn from circulation towards the end of the 19th century with the introduction of conventional British-style currency, although limited quantities were allowed to be retained for ceremonial purposes such as dowry payments and burial wealth.The word manilla is derived either from the Spanish for necklace (monilia) or from the Latin for hand manus). (Johansson, Nigerian Currencies: Manillas, Cowries and Others, p.11).

Karen Adams, December 2007

References
Eyo, Ekpo. Nigeria and the Evolution of Money. Lagos, Nigeria: Central bank of
Nigeria in association with the federal Department of Antiquities, 1979.
Fisher, Angela. Africa Adorned. New York: Abrams, 1984.
Quiggin, Alison Hingston. A Survey of Primitive Money: The Beginnings of Currency.
New York: AMS Press, 1979.
Johansson, Sven-Olof. Nigerian Currencies: manillas, cowries and others, 1967

Manilla dowry jewellery / currency, elongated crescent shaped, copper alloy / brass, maker unknown, West Africa, 1850-1900

Copper alloy (possibly dowry manilla) of elongated C shape faceted on the outer edges and with flared ends and plain circular terminals, decorated on three faces with geometric designs and crosshatching with incised triangles for talismanic protection, heavy patina and verdigris.

Made: West Africa; 1850 - 1950


Used: Lagos, Nigeria; 1850 - 1900

No marks

2008/75/5

1850 - 1950

45 mm

310 mm

140 mm